Effects Of Tobacco On The United States Essay - 936 Words

Young people may start to be curious about smoking at some point in time in their life. They might like the idea of doing something dangerous or something that makes them look like an adult. Young people do not know that smoking and tobacco use can cause cancer and heart disease. They do not look into the future to worry about the consequences. Tobacco use is the leading preventable cause of death in the United States (Persoskie, Donaldson, King, 2016). In this cohort study, there was a research if there was an interest about or ever-utilization of tobacco items among the US middle and high school students changed from 2012 to 2014. The research data came from the 2012 and 2014 National Youth Tobacco Surveys of US students in grades 6 through 12 (Persoskie, Donaldson, King, 2016). 2014 data of students who used cigarettes, cigars, smokeless tobacco, and e-cigarettes were classified as ever-users or never-users of each product. The never-users were questioned about their curiosity about each product if they had been definitely, probably, probably not, or definitely not been curious about using the products. The evaluated sociodemographics were sex (male, female), race/ethnicity (non-Hispanic white, non-Hispanic dark, Hispanic, and other), and age (9-14, 15-16, /= 17y) (Persoskie, Donaldson, King, 2016). The National Youth Tobacco Survey data was from the US middle and high school students who did pencil-and-paper, school-based, cross-sectional, and self-administeredShow MoreRelatedTobacco And Its Effects On The United States1985 Words   |  8 PagesTobacco use is one of the leading causes of death in the United States, killing more Americans than HIV, drug and alcohol abuse, suicides, murders and car accidents combined. There are numerous campaigns such as D.A.R.E. and â€Å"Swipe Left† to help persuade us out of using tobacco products. Sayings like â€Å"Not even once† have even become clichà ©. However, studies have shown that one cigarette is all it takes to get addicted. Despite popular belief, smokeless tobacco is addictive as well. Big tobaccoRead MoreTobacco A nd Its Effects On The United States1061 Words   |  5 PagesTobacco is the number one cause of preventable death in the United States. According to the American Lung Association in 2009, 20.6% of adults were current smokers. In 1970, the United States banned television and radio advertisements of cigarettes. Across the world countries battle similar issues in how to help prevent deaths, lower healthcare costs, and educate the population. Countries have banned advertising, posted health causes, renamed brands, and even included informational fliers inRead MoreTobacco Products And Its Effects On The United States876 Words   |  4 Pagesstore, right behind the register after a grocery list has been completed. Tobacco companies are multi-billion dollar industries that thrive on the addiction of its consumers. The United States government should take control of tobacco companies and ban the marketing, production, and sales of tobacco. This is because health issues contributed to the use of tobacco products are overwhelmingly high; they’re very addictive; the effects of second-hand smoke are as harmful as smoking itself; and an alarmingRead MoreTobacco And Its Effects On The Health Of The United States1255 Words   |  6 PagesKing James of England and Scotland, describing smoking in 1604 (Connolly 13). Tobacco use kills millions of people a year but still only has few legal restrictions. Many argue that the use of tobacco is a right we have in the United States but the harm that it does to the innocent may outweigh those rights. Because the use of tobacco negatively impacts the health of both the users and those around them, all tobacco products and their use should be illegal. Often times in history when a new productRead MoreCultivation Of Tobacco And Its Effects On The United States2689 Words   |  11 Pages Up to 1775* Cultivation of Tobacco was the basis of America’s early economy; shortly after, later economy weaved and meshed with the British Empire’s on heavily voluminous levels, and their relationship was strongly based on various Acts placed upon the Colonies. After acquiring seeds from Trinidadian colonies, John Rolfe’s plantation of the tobacco plant caused the first real economic presence by selling them to European countries. The Tobacco plant was the first true cash-crop of AmericaRead MoreIntroduction. Tobacco Use Throughout The United States1254 Words   |  6 Pages Introduction Tobacco use throughout the United States has become an epidemic, not only among adults, but among adolescents as well. People do not realize the effects of tobacco or the consequence of using tobacco among the youth and adolescents. What are the leading factors of adolescents using tobacco? Do peers and parents have an influence on tobacco use among adolescents? Throughout this paper I will discuss the effects of tobacco use, the statistics of tobacco use among adolescents, and otherRead MoreTobacco Should Be Made Illegal Essay1010 Words   |  5 Pagesthan 480,000 deaths each year in the United States. This means about one out of every five deaths is a result of smoking. In addition to outright death, smoking has many detrimental effects on the lives of smokers and those around them. Fires, second-hand smoke, and smoking related motor vehicle accidents all plague the world and those in it. Tobacco should be made illegal because of the horrible consequences it inflicts on smokers a nd non-smokers alike. Tobacco is a plant that grows natively in NorthRead MoreThe Health Benefits Of Tobacco1366 Words   |  6 PagesThe United States’ economy appears large and formidable to foreign countries, but it is actually a delicate balance. One of the key contributors to the balance of the economy is tobacco. Tobacco has played a role in global economic ties since the discovery of the Americas. Instantly popularized across the world, it has become a staple crop for many countries. Recently, however, political leaders have been murmuring of making tobacco illegal due to its health effects. The legality of tobacco is essentialRead MoreTobacco Addiction : The Strong Craving For The Addictive Substance Nicotine1356 Words   |  6 PagesPaul Becker Professor Roger Gosselin English 102 25 October 2015 Tobacco Addiction Tobacco addiction is the strong craving for the addictive substance nicotine. It has caused health problems in millions of people across the country, and its effects are one of the leading causes of death in the United States. I have had many family members develop serious health concerns due to their tobacco addiction and know personally what a horrible thing it is. All of my grandparents have smoked in the pastRead More The Negitive Effects of Tobacco Essay1330 Words   |  6 Pagesgreatest problems in the United States. According to the statistics, tobacco has the highest death rate. Smoking is a very popular habit, even though we all know that smoking is very dangerous. Millions of people around the globe want to quit smoking for medical reasons such as having already two heart-valve replacement surgeries. By now, almost everyone knows that smoking and other tobacco use causes cancer. But it can also cause may more problems. When you smoke tobacco, the effects on your body are immediate

Essay on Indian Music - 1105 Words

Indian Music The music of India is one of the oldest unspoken musical traditions in the world. The basis of for Indian music is â€Å"sangeet.† Sangeet is a combination of three art forms: vocal music, instrumental music (Indian music). Indian music is base upon seven modes (scales). It is probably no coincidence that Greek music is also base upon seven modes. Furthermore, the Indian scales follow the same process of modulation (murchana) that was found in ancient Greek music. Since Greece is also Indo-European, this is another piece of evidence for the Indo-European connection (Dance and music of India). The vocal tradition is especially strong in Indian music. It is understood that the song is probably the most ancient form of†¦show more content†¦It is linked to the Sanskrit word â€Å"ranj† which means, â€Å"to colour† (Indian music). Therefore, rag may be thought of as an acoustic method of colouring the mind of the listener with an emotion. It is not a tune, melody, scale, mode, or any concept for which an English word exists. It is instead a combination of different characteristics. It is these characteristics, which define the rag. There must be the notes of the rag. They are called the swar (Indian music). There must also be a modal structure. This is called that in North Indian music and mela in carnatic music (Carnatic music). There is also the jati. Jati is the number of notes used in the rag. There must also be the ascending and descending structure. This is called arohana/avarohana. Another characteristic is that the various notes do not have the same level of significance. Some are important and others less so. The important notes are called vadi and samavadi (Indian music). There are often characteristic movements to the rag. This is called either pakad (Indian music). The Indian rhythm is known as tal. Tal means â€Å"clap†. The tabla (Indian drum instrument) has replaced the clap in the performance, but the term still reflects the origin. The basic concepts of tal are tali, Khali,vibhag, matra, bol, theka, lay, sam, and avartan. Tali are a pattern of clapping. In addition to the claps, there are also a number ofShow MoreRelatedIndian Music4009 Words   |  17 PagesIndia The music of India includes multiple varieties of folk, popular, pop, classical music andRB. Indias classical music tradition, including Carnatic and Hindustani music, has a history spanning millennia and developed over several eras. It remains fundamental to the lives of Indians today as sources of spiritual inspiration, cultural expression and pure entertainment. India is made up of several dozen ethnic groups, speaking their ownlanguages and dialects, having distinct cultural traditionsRead MoreEssay on Transformations to Indian Classical Music801 Words   |  4 Pageshuman history (Wright 2009). 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It is rooted in antiquity, with traces of its origin found in areas such as the ancient religious Vedic hymns, tribal chants, devotional temple music, and folk music. IndianRead MoreIndian Classical Dance and Music1978 Words   |  8 PagesIts only for a section of society. The masses cant really relate to it.; Its extinct.; I dont know anything about that. But I can talk to you about Jazz, if you want. Talk about Classical Music and Dance and these are the replies you get from the people of the country, supposedly so rich in heritage and culture. Boasting to have strong traditional and cultural roots, our country has always called itself the land of arts. Unfortunately, the very same country lives in an irony today as itsRead MoreJohn Cage - Music Of Silence992 Words   |  4 PagesJohn Cage – Music in Silence When the word music is heard, generally the first thing that comes to mind is how one would be able to relate to the piece. John Cage, a contemporary composer, expanded the normality of music by sounds with no meaning or emotional connection and silence. The propinquity between mind and music is difficult to sever, and to have music without an emotional connection is unfathomable. John Milton Cage Jr. is an American contemporary composer born September 05, 1912 inRead MoreMusic: The Harmony of Culture Essay1077 Words   |  5 PagesPresent in throughout the Hindu, Greek, and Judaic cultures, is the divine and meticulous use of music in various ways. Similarly between these cultures, music is symbolic of the most important and sacred concepts. The musical elements often exist to celebrate parts of the culture, to provide an element of sound to express spiritually, and to worship one or more Gods. Furthermore, music has occupied a central place in Hindu, Greek, and Judaic cultures, in which there are intrinsic musical principlesRead MoreThe You Ever Had An Indian Taco?857 Words   |  4 Pages JHave You Ever Had An Indian Taco? July in the city of Toronto is a scorchingly hot month and the need to escape to a lake or forest is at the forefront of most individuals’ agendas. Only then are they content amidst thoughts of campfires and mosquitos. It is music to their ears. For permanent cottage country residents like myself summer brings months of ruined rhythms. My village hums as thousands of tourists ascend with the same need to escape. However, where does one go to find musical inspirationRead MoreRelationship Between Place And Music And The Song Inglan Is A Bitch 1597 Words   |  7 PagesThe objective of this paper is to examine the relationship between place and music and analyze the song â€Å"Inglan is a Bitch† by Linton Kwesi Johnson in terms of place. â€Å"Inglan is a Bitch† exemplifies the link between music and place through its lyrics and sound. First I am going to define cultural geography and discuss how culture is linked to place. Then I will explain local music spaces and why music has a strong sense of place. Next I will analyze how â€Å"Inglan is a Bitch† relates to place. AfterRead MoreMedia Devices Used in Bend It like Beckham and Billy Elliot Essay955 Words   |  4 PagesMedia Devices Used in Bend It like Beckham and Billy Elliot Narratives are constructed in many different ways; narrative editing, narrative music, cinematography and mis en scene. This assignment will take you through media devises and method used by the directors of Bend it like Beckham and Billy Elliot use to construct their narratives. The plots of both films are based on stereotypes and how the main characters are challenging them in each film. This leads to Read MoreMusic Is Innate Or Innate?849 Words   |  4 Pagesmosquitos. It is music to their ears. For permanent cottage country residents like myself summer brings months of ruined rhythms. My village hums as thousands of tourists ascend with the same need to escape. However, where does one go to find musical inspiration in chaos? And if one finds it, is it learned or innate? This essay will examine how we are conditioned to believe our ability to listen and perform music can only exist within certain parameteres; how Blacking’s hypothesis â€Å"music is innate†( )

Case Study Chaser Ltd

Question: Describe about the Case Study of Chaser Ltd Company? Answer: Case Study The primary issue on the given case is that in accordance to the Corporations Act, 2001, and the general law whether Anthony has breached any duty as a director in the company, Chaser Ltd. The facts in the case state that there are four directors in the company Chaser Ltd whose primary business is related to wine bottling. As a result of the decreasing economy and the entry of new wine companies the market s gradually becoming stiffer. Due to this reason the directors in the company decided to invest in some other business ventures. One of the directors, Anthony was advised by Wayne, a friend that investing in tidal energy would be a good chance to revive the falling business. He had explained that tidal energy being a new form of energy that was gaining momentum in Europe and USA. The energy was environment friendly and during the time no company in Australia was using this form of energy. Wayne who also worked for a green energy company in Norway was invited to give a presentation in the company Chaser Ltd. After an impressive presentation, the directors of Chaser Ltd were impressed with the new strategy of the tidal energy and decided to invest in the tidal energy b usiness. The investment made in the company was $20 million and gave the sole contract of the tidal energy to the Norway Company. After three months the entire business failed as the water in Australia was not suited for the tidal energy since the Great Barrier Reef was present in the country. Later the directors discovered that Wayne was not any expert in tidal energy and neither did he hold any good position in the Norway Company. Further the directors also found out that Anthony was a major shareholder in the Norway Company. The individuals who are being appointed as the directors in the company they are required to obey with the Corporations Act for carrying out the duties (Harris, 2009). In accordance with the Corporations Act it is a must for the directors to act with good faith and for an appropriate purpose, they are required to avoid any improper use of any information, they are required to avoid any improper use of information and they are further required to disclose any interests. The primary duty of the director is to act in good faith and accordance to the benefit of the company. Section 181 of the Corporations Act states that the directors along with the secretaries and other officers of any corporation have a civil duty to exercise appropriate powers and conduct their duties in good faith and in best interests of the organization. For instance the Act states that the directors are not allowed to benefit for themselves or for any third party and only for the interests of the corporation as a whole. When the director does not follow according to the section it will be considered as a breach of the duty. Section 184(1) of the Corporations Act, provides for the breach of the duty being a criminal offense when the breach arises as a result of the recklessness or dishonesty of the director in the corporations. The duty to act with care and diligence of the director has been given under section 180 of the Corporations Act. It provides that the directors have the civil obligation to exercise a reasonable amount of care and due diligence under all circumstances while exercising the powers of a director and during the discharge of the duties. The Act further defines reasonable as the degree of care and diligence which any reasonable person in the similar position in the company would exercise under the same circumstances. The director and officer would generally require exercising a reasonable degree with regard to care and diligence. The director would make any judgment of good faith and for appropriate purpose. They should not have any personal interest in the subject matter in the judgment. They should inform the other directors the subject matter of the judgment to that extent to which it can be appropriate and reasonable. The acts of the directors should be rational and for the positive interests of the corporation. In such cases where the directors are not able to satisfy the appropriate degree of care, skill and due diligence by the way of delegating authority to the colleagues and the sub ordinates in the company and also do not pay proper attention to the company. At least, the directors are required to take active interests in the affairs of the company and also get a general understanding of the business of the company. They are required to pursue anything that is annoying and has come to their attention (Harris, 2009). According to Section 183 of the Corporations Act, a civil duty is upon the director to obtain information as they are or have been a director or any officer or any other employee in the company and they must not use any information for any improper purpose and such information should not be used to take any advantage for themselves or for any other person and cause loss or harm to the corporation (Tomasic, Bottomley and McQueen, 2002). This particular duty has a huge amount of significance where the director has a lot of interest to which the Government Board can relate to. Section 184 (3) of the Corporations Act provides that the directors, the officers, the employees of the company are not permitted to commit any criminal offense for use of information in a dishonest manner. The directors have the duty to avoid any inappropriate use of position (Wiffen, 1994). Section 182 of the Corporations Act, 2001, states that the directors or the officers or the employees have the civil duty to not make any improper use of the company and in order to gain any advantage for them or for anyone else or cause any loss to the company. With regard to the duty of the directors to reveal any interests, according to section 191 given under the Corporations Act, that the director of the company having any material interest in any matter relating to the affairs of the company is required give the other directors notice of such an interests (Christensen, Kent and Stewart, 2010). Such a notice is required to include the details of the nature of the interests or the extent of that interest in that matter. For instance, if the director has any personal interest in any contract in which the company enters then such interest should be informed to the other directors of the company ( Tomasic, Bottomley and McQueen, 2002). In the case of any breach of statutory duty by the directors as given under the Corporations Act the penalties may be up to $200, 000. Both under the common law as well as under the Corporations Act, the officers are required to pay appropriate compensation or give accounts for the profits. Further the law also allows the directors to be disqualified from the office (Langford, 2011). In the case of ASIC v Lindberg (ASIC v Lindberg, [2012]) Justice Robson from the Victoria Supreme Court had laid down penalty judgment during the proceedings of ASIC against that of ASIC who was the former managing director of AWB reached an agreement during the settlement of the proceedings. In his judgment Justice Robson provided guidance on the duty of care and due diligence that is required to be carried out by the directors and officers in accordance with the Section 180 (1) of the Corporations Act 2001 (Cth) (Nortonrosefulbright.com, n.d.). In his judgment he also restated some of the fundamental principles with regard to the imposing of pecuniary penalties and orders of disqualification in the case of any breach under section 180 (1). In a brief, it can be stated that in cases of high profile businesses, the person who is the managing director or the Chief Executive Officer of the company, should be more careful while personally monitoring or investigating the possible inconsi stencies or mistakes (intended or unintended) and also make sure that all the relevant and significant facts are brought to the attention of the board (Nortonrosefulbright.com, n.d.). Further in the case, the judge held that the evidence was satisfactory to prove that Mr. Lindberg had contravened section 180 (1) of the Corporations Act. Mr. Lindberg had further admitted to the acts of negligence made by him while was performing his duties as the director and officer of the company. Even though the contraventions carried out by Mr. Lindberg could not be proved to be done deliberately or dishonestly or with any moral turpitude, he did fail to perform his proper duties that any other reasonable director in his place would have done when placed under similar situations. According to section 180 of the Corporations Act, 2001, Justice Robson stated that this portion is extremely essential with regard to the Corporations Act (Nortonrosefulbright.com, n.d.). This is mainly because in the market economy the entire corporate structure relies on the investments made by the shareholders in the company which is to be appropriately managed by the directors and the officers in t he corporations. With regard to the penalties it was stated by Justice Robson that the contraventions to the Corporations Act was serious and the penalties given to the director was pecuniary penalty and a certain period of disqualification and both these penalties were considered to be appropriate by the judge. Justice Robson later exercised his jurisdiction in order to impose these penalties and disqualifications accordingly. In another case in 2007, the civil penalty proceedings were brought against the seven former directors along with three other former directors and the company secretary counsel for breach of the duties under section 180 (1) of the Corporations Act. The plaintiffs had alleged that the directors did not exercise due diligence and care while dealing with the release of the information to the share market and hence they breached their duties as directors in the company. The Supreme Court of New South Wales held that all the seven directors had breached the Corporations Act since they approved their announcement to the company and misled the company by conveying that the creation of the trust for funding the asbestos and related diseases claims would have enough funds in order to meet the present as well as the future claims. This judgment of the Supreme Court was overturned by the High Court and it did not agree that the company had failed to satisfy the burden of proof about the draftin g to the companys announcements and the approvals of the board meetings. These announcements and the board meetings were considered to be enough evidence to figure out the truth of the matters, as opined by the High Court (Christensen, Kent and Stewart, 2010). In another English case, Regal (Hastings) Ltd v Gulliver (Regal (Hastings) Ltd v Gulliver, [1942]), the UK company law was involved. The case involved the breach of the duty of loyalty by the directors and the officers due to the fact that they took corporate advantages. The English Court in the case held that when a director takes advantage of any opportunity which the company would have been interested and for the director he was unable to take advantage then it will be held as the breach by the director (Chartrand, Millar and Wiltshire, 2009). Nevertheless, such a breach may be resolved if the shareholders ratify to it. The House of Lords, reversed the decision of High Court and the Court of Appeals and further held that the director had profited from the reasons and fact that they were directors of that company and the acts were done while in the course of business and execution of office (eprints, n.d.). Hence they are to be accounted for the profits made by them to the company (Talbot, 2008). The High Court further held that in accordance to the rule of equity if any person being in the fiduciary position make any profit, then he or she would be liable for the accounts of the profits and such profit should not be dependent on fraud or absence of good faith or questions on whether property should have gone to the plaintiffs or not or whether the plaintiff would have been benefited by the actions of the defendant (eprints, n.d.). In the given case, applying the Corporations Act, 2001, it can be stated that one of the directors Anthony influenced the other directors to invest in the tidal energy. According to the Corporations Act, 2001, being a director Anthony had the duty to act in good faith and in the best interests of the organization (Tomasic, Bottomley and McQueen, 2002). Directors are also required to look at the best interests of the company and not be committed towards gaining advantage for him or any personal interests. In the given case he was gaining personal advantage from the deal between his company and the Norway Company on tidal energy. This was because Anthony was a major share holder in the Norwegian Company. This indicates that the director of the company, Anthony had personal interests in making the deal with the Norwegian Company. Hence as a director of the company he had breached the duty of a director under the Corporations Act, 2001. Further in accordance to section 180 (1) of the Corporations Act, Anthony did not take due care and diligence which any person in the similar position would have taken and this was also stated in the case of ASIC v Lindberg (ASIC v Lindberg, [2012]). Since Wayne was a friend of Anthony, it was possible and in his duty for Anthony to investigate properly about Wayne before making the directors agree to the investments. In accordance to the general law, too, Anthony would be held liable for the breach of his duty as a director since under the law directors have a duty of loyalty towards their company. This was stated in the case, Regal (Hastings) Ltd v Gulliver (Regal (Hastings) Ltd v Gulliver, [1942]), where the House of Lords held that if a director takes advantage and due to this the company is unable to take any advantage then it will be considered as a breach of the duty by the director. Even under this law, the director Anthony is responsible for the breach of duty. Hence Anthony is liable to the company for the breach (Wan, 2011). Keeping in mind the scenario in the present case, the other directors would not be held liable under the Corporations Act or the general law, but the director Anthony would be liable for breach of duty both under the Corporations Act as well as under the general law (Foster, 2000). Due to the breach of duty Anthony would be liable for pecuniary compensation and also he may be liable for disqualifications under the Australian Corporations law. Hence in the given case, Anthony is only liable for the breach of duty among all the directors and he would be only held liable according to the given law. References ASIC v Lindberg[2012]VSC p.332. Chartrand, M., Millar, C. and Wiltshire, E. (2009).English for contract and company law. London: Sweet Maxwell. Christensen, J., Kent, P. and Stewart, J. (2010). Corporate Governance and Company Performance in Australia.Australian Accounting Review, 20(4), pp.372-386. eprints, (n.d.).Regal (Hastings) Ltd v Gulliver (1942). [online] Available at: https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/75080/1/Regal_Landmark_Cases_in_Equity_Ch_17.pdf [Accessed 13 Feb. 2015]. Foster, N. (2000). Company Law Theory in Comparative Perspective: England and France.The American Journal of Comparative Law, 48(4), p.573. Harris, J. (2009).Corporations law. Chatswood, N.S.W.: LexisNexis Butterworths. Langford, R. (2011). The Duty of Directors to Act Bona Fide in the Interests of the Company: A Positive Fiduciary Duty? Australia and the UK Compared.J Corp Law Studies, 11(1), pp.215-242. Nortonrosefulbright.com, (n.d.).The James Hardie Decisions: Australian Securities Investments Commission v Hellicar Ors [2012] HCA17; Shafron v Australian Securities Investments Commission [2012] HCA 18. [online] Available at: https://www.nortonrosefulbright.com/knowledge/publications/66582/the-james-hardie-decisions-australian-securities-investments-commission-v-hellicar-ors-hca17-shaf?utm_source=Mondaqutm_medium=syndicationutm_campaign=View-Original [Accessed 13 Feb. 2015]. Regal (Hastings) Ltd v Gulliver[1942]UKHL p.1. Talbot, L. (2008).Critical company law. Abingdon, Oxon: Routlege-Cavendish. Tomasic, R., Bottomley, S. and McQueen, R. (2002).Corporations law in Australia. Leichhardt, NSW: Federation Press. Wan, M. (2011). Book review for the Major Issues in Company Law (with Chinese and English Comparative Law Notes).Frontiers of Law in China, 6(2), pp.332-333. Wiffen, G. (1994).Corporations law. Sydney: Butterworths.

Strategic Planning Theories Essay Example

Strategic Planning Theories Paper DBA 822 Seminars in Strategy and International Business Strategic Planning Theories A Literature Review By; Benjamin J. Shuford III 8/24/10 Introduction: Strategic planning is a broad concept that has been introduced into the main stream practices of today’s corporations. Strategic planning can be defined as an organization’s process of defining goals, direction, and decision making processes that effect the allocation of resources that include capital and people. The term â€Å"strategy† is derived from the Greek word of â€Å"strategos,† which means literally, â€Å"general of the army. (Hart, 1965). The Greek tribes of ancient civilizations would elect a strategos to head their regiments during battles. These political rulers would follow the strategic advice from the council members about managing troops to win battles. From its early military roots on winning battles to becoming a pattern of purposes and policies that define a company and its busines s, strategic planning has become the primary focus of today’s diverse organizations. There are many theories that are used to describe how organizations view the strategic planning process. These processes are framed as models that are consistently being revised to fit the needs of an organization. This literature review will focus on some of these models and the theorists who developed them. This literature review will review theories from Igor Ansoff, Henry Mintzberg, Michael Porter, and Kenichi Ohmae. The purpose will be to gain a better understanding of how these theories shape organizational performance. An analysis will be conducted to evaluate the practice of and the future direction of these theories. The choice to review these four theorists over all of the others is because of their legacy and robust contributions to the field of strategic management. Ansoff was one of the earliest writers on strategy as a management discipline, and laid strong foundations for several later writers to build upon, including Michael Porter, Gary Hamel and C K Prahalad. He invented the modern approach to strategy and his work pulled together various ideas and disparate strands of thought, giving a new coherence and discipline to the concept he described as strategic planning. We will write a custom essay sample on Strategic Planning Theories specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Strategic Planning Theories specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Strategic Planning Theories specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer A debate between Ansoff and Henry Mintzberg over their differing views of strategy was reflected in print over many years, particularly in the Harvard Business Review. Ansoff has often been criticized by Mintzberg, who disliked the idea of strategy being built from planning which is supported by analytical techniques. This criticism was based on the belief that Ansoffs reliance on planning suffered from three fallacies: that events can be predicted, that strategic thinking can be separated from operational management, and that hard data, analysis and techniques can produce novel strategies. The strategic planning/management theories of Porter and Ohmae were derived from both Ansoff and Mentzberg. Ansoff was the originator of the strategic management concept, and was responsible for establishing strategic planning as a management activity. The Strategic Planning Process: Because of high competitive business environments, organizations must engage in strategic planning processes that clearly define and state the objectives of the organization. They must assess both external and internal factors to develop and implement a strategy to stay competitive. They need to evaluate the process and make needed adjustments to stay on track. In their search for sources of sustainable competitive advantage, researchers have come to realize that business performance depends not only on the formulation and successful implementation of a given strategy but also on the process by which competitive positions are created or maintained. Mintzberg was one of the first to point out that the realized strategy of an organization can strongly differ from the intended strategy and that the extent to which an intended strategy can be realized is closely related to the strategic process that exist within the organization (Mintzberg, 1987). In his early work, he identified three main types of strategy processes: planning, entrepreneurial and learning-by-experience. He described planning as a philosophical approach when he classifies strategic business thinking in ten schools of thought, which he describes in their historical and ideological context. Early theorist, such as Igor Ansoff, focused on the analytical aspects of strategy formation. The first three schools in Mintzberg’s taxonomy are therefore prescriptive and focus on how strategy ought to be formulated. One of the major premises of the prescriptive schools if the performance claim, which states that the more an organization engages in systematic strategic planning, the more likely it will result in above average returns. The prescriptive schools have been influential in the discourse of strategy formulation, but have failed to explain the process of strategy execution (Mintzberg, 1990). Mintzbergs School of Strategic Thought (Mintzberg and Lampel, 1990). | | | | | | | | School| Category| Foundation| | | | Design| Prescriptive| Engineering| | | | Planning| Prescriptive| Systems Theory| | | | Positioning| Prescriptive| Economics| | | | Entrepreneurial| Descriptive| Economics| | | | Cognitive| Descriptive| Psychology| | | | Learning| Descriptive| Psychology| | | | Power| Descriptive| Political Science| | | | Cultural| Descriptive| Anthropology| | | | Environmental| Descriptive| Biology| | | | Configuration| Both| History| | | | | | | | | | The Design school defines strategy formation as a process of conception. It began during the late 1950s and mid-1960s. This school puts emphasis on an appraisal of external environment and the internal situation using the classic SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats). Also shaping strategy formulation are the values of the organization’s management and an assessment of the organization’s social responsibilities (Selznick, 1957). The Planning school identified strategy formation as a formal process. It emerged in the mid 1960. It has resulted in a plethora of strategic planning models. The underlying foundation of all of these models is straightforward: divide the SWOT model into neatly delineated steps. Step1 – Set objectives – Establish and qualify goals or objective of the organization. Step 2- External Audits – Assess the external environment, using the SWOT analysis, and create a set of forecasts about the future. Step 3 – Internal audits – Typically this process is assisted by checklists and tables of topic to consider. Step 4 – Strategy evaluation – Organizations can use a variety of techniques ranging from return on nvestment (ROI), to risk analysis, to calculating shareholder value. Step 5 – Strategy implementation – This step creates a very detailed and formalized action plan. Objectives, strategies, budgets, and programs are all brought together into a master plan. The Positioning School defines strategy formation as an analytical process. This school began in the 1980s and was popular due to the notion of competitive strategy frameworks that were identified as five forces on an organization’s environment by Michael Porter. The significance of this school is that it emphasized the importance of strategies to any given industry. The Entrepreneurial school looks at strategy formation as a visionary process. This school of thought developed in the 1990s and using vision as a central starting point. Vision establishes the broad sense of direction while preserving flexibility to adapt to changing conditions. One of the advocates of the entrepreneurial school is Peter Drucker, who identifies entrepreneurship with management itself: â€Å"Central to business enterprise is†¦ the entrepreneurial act, an act of economic risk taking. And business enterprise is an entrepreneurial institution† (Drucker, 1970). The Cognitive school defined strategy formation as a mental process and started in the early 1990s. This school focuses on the mind of the strategist, drawing from the field of cognitive psychology. There is a large body of research that suggests that individuals encounter a variety of problems in making decisions that influence many situations in the management process because they are difficult to change and form once implemented. Individuals who practice this school find that they each have different cognitive styles that can distort decision making processes. The Learning school defines strategy formation as an emergent process. It started in the mid 1990s and follows the perspective that people within an organization learn how to use the organization’s abilities to change and adapt in a positive manner in order to respond to a changing environment (Quinn, 1980). This school is less concerned with the actual strategy that was formulated than with what it took to get a strategy implemented. The Power school, which began in the late 1980s, defines strategy formation as a process of negotiation and is based on the notion that the influence of power from the external environment will affect any organization, and in many cases politics will infuse an organization. This school views strategy as a political process that focuses on alliance building, empire building, budgeting, expertise, insurgency, counterinsurgency, lording, rival camps, whistle-blowing, and line versus staff. The importance of this school is that it has identified the political process as a reality that must be acknowledged and managed but that is not the sole means for making strategies within an organization. The Cultural school defines strategy formation as a collective process. The cultural school began in the early 1990s and can be thought of as a system of shared values, beliefs, and meanings held by staff members that distinguish the organization from other organizations. The dimensions making up this school include teamwork, honesty, control, decision making processes, rewards, and conflict. The Environmental school started in the mid-1990s and defines strategy formation as a reactive process. It views the forces operating outside the organization as active, while the organization itself merely reacts to these outside forces. The primary contribution of this school is that it attempts to bring the overall view of strategy formation into balance. This school emphasizes that the outside environment, the leadership, and the organization itself are actually responsible for strategy making. The Configuration school defines strategy formation as a process of transformation. This school began in the mid-1990s and attempts to integrate strategy by showing how different dimensions of an organization band together under particular conditions to define states, models, or ideas types. The premise of this school is that periods of stability and transformation can best be understood as life cycles of an organization. The key to strategic management is to recognize the need for transformation and manage the process of change without having a negative impact on the organization. Later developments in strategic management literature moved away from the prescriptive approach modeled on quantitative exact sciences and their inherent presumptions of a controlled world. The descriptive schools of thought are inspired on the qualitative social and cultural sciences and study what businesses actually did to be successful for other organizations to learn from their approaches. The descriptive schools move from a focus on a-priori strategic planning to a-posteriori dynamic strategy formulation and execution. For practitioners, the prescriptive schools of thought are very attractive. However, the descriptive schools are somewhat problematic to practitioners of strategic management because they do not provide straightforward recipes for success. The question raised by Mintzberg’s taxonomy of strategic thought and other similar taxonomies is how average practitioners can determine what strategy they should employ (Sokol, 1992). Fuller (1996) suggests that traditional strategic planning is under fire. Strategic planning in the classical model was developed in an era when the external environment was relatively simple, stable, and predictable, and when the behavior of a firm was viewed as being cybernetic. Strategic plans were primarily used as a control mechanism to reduce uncertainty and risk and to allocate power. They were internally focused because many of the company’s transactions were internal. As a result of slow or negligible environmental change, managers were able to consider their strategic options once a year through a process that is detached from the ordinary workings of the company. Consequently, the plans that are produced are used in litigation between a corporation and its business units, or among business units, for control of the decision-making processes. Hamel and Prahalad (1995) ask why it is that in so many companies strategic planning departments are being disbanded or dramatically downsized. This change in emphasis was driven by thinkers such as Hammer and Champy (1993) with their concept â€Å"business process re-engineering†. Hamel and Prahalad (1995) continue to make the claim that the problem is not with strategy but with the particular notion of strategy that predominates in most companies. What is being rejected is not strategy itself, but strategy setting as a pedantic planning ritual on one hand or as a speculative and open-ended investment commitment on the other. The academic scholars of the Planning School had determined a formal process for strategic planning and, in 1985; a study by Ginter (1985) was undertaken in the UK to determine whether this academic model had practical applicability. The 4,000 members of the Planning Executive Institute were asked a range of questions to provide a forum for assessing the perceptions of planning and strategic managers in practice. In excess of 1,000 members responded, and the researchers concluded that the model was a good framework for the way strategic planning takes place in the corporate environment. The Ginter (1985) paper described the strategic process as containing eight elements: (1) Vision and mission; (2) Objective setting; (3) External environmental scanning; (4) Internal environmental scanning; (5) Strategic alternatives (crafting strategy); (6) Strategy selection; (7) Implementation; and (8) Control. These elements are found consistently in the literature and taught in university business schools and undergraduate programs Thompson and Strickland (1998), Hill and Jones (1998), Stahl and Grigsby (1992). Viljoen (1994), and Hubbard (1996), all propound similar models in their educational texts. The central message of the Planning School is â€Å"formal procedure, formal training, formal analysis, lots of numbers† (Mintzberg, 1998). Many corporations adopted formal strategic planning as the fundamental driving concept for their business. Differentiation strategy When using a differentiation strategy, a company focuses effort on providing a unique Product or service, setting their offerings apart from competitors. Product differentiation fulfills a customer need and involves uniquely tailoring the product or service to the customer. This strategy allows organizations to charge a premium price to capture market share. The differentiation strategy is effectively implemented when the business provides unique or superior value to the customer through product quality, features, or after-sale support and service. Firms following a differentiation strategy can charge a higher price for their products based on the product characteristics, the delivery system, the quality of service, or the distribution channels. The quality may be real or perceived, based on fashion, brand name, or image. The differentiation strategy appeals to a sophisticated or knowledgeable consumer interested in a unique quality product or service and willing to pay a higher price for these non-standardized products. Customers value the differentiated products more than they value low costs. Our research identified three tactics which were significantly related to organizational performance in the companies we surveyed following the differentiation strategy. These critical practices included: 1. Innovation in marketing technology and methods. 2. Fostering innovation and creativity. 3. Focus on building high market share. Cost leadership strategy Porter’s generic strategy of cost leadership focuses on gaining competitive advantage by having the lowest costs and cost structure in the industry. In order to achieve a low-cost advantage, an organization must have a low-cost leadership mindset, low-cost manufacturing with rapid distribution and replenishment, and a workforce committed to the low-cost strategy. The organization must be willing to discontinue any activities in which they do not have a cost advantage and may outsource activities to other organizations that have a cost advantage. There are many ways to achieve cost leadership such as mass production, mass distribution, economies of scale, technology, product design, input cost, capacity utilization of resources, and access to raw materials. Cost leaders work to have the lowest product or service unit costs and can withstand competition with their lower cost structure. Cost leaders may take a number of cost saving actions, including building efficient scale facilities, tightly controlling overhead and production costs, and monitoring costs to build their relatively standardized products that offer features acceptable to many customers at the lowest competitive price. But the tactic that proved to be most critical to this strategy is the minimization of distribution costs. Focus strategy In a focus generic strategy, a firm targets a specific, often narrow, segment of the market. The firm can choose to concentrate on a select customer group (youths or senior citizens, for example), product range, segment of a market (professional craft persons versus do-it-yourselfers), geographical areas (East coast versus West coast), or service line. For example, many European firms focus solely on the European market. Focus also is based on adopting a narrow competitive scope within an industry that large firms may have overlooked. The focus strategy aims at growing market share through operating in a narrow market or niche segment more effectively than larger competitors. A successful focus strategy depends upon an industry segment large enough to have good growth potential but small enough not to be important to other major competitors. Focusing allows the firm to direct its resources to certain value chain activities to build its advantage. An organization may also choose a combination strategy by mixing one of the generic strategies of low-cost or differentiation with the focus strategy. For example, a firm may choose to have a focus differentiation strategy or a focus/cost leadership strategy. Based on our research, four tactics appear to be critical for organizations attempting a focus/low cost strategy: 1. Providing outstanding customer service. 2. Improving operational efficiency. 3. Controlling the quality of products or services. 4. Extensive training of front-line personnel. Focus/differentiation Another combination focus strategy is a focus/differentiation strategy where the organization has a unique quality product offered to a targeted market segment or niche. The significantly important tactics include: * Producing specialty products and services. * Producing products or services for high price market segments. In addition to generic strategies, Porter (1985) developed several other modular concepts. The five forces model is shown in Figure 2. Porter (1980) suggested that the task facing managers is to analyze competitive forces in an industry’s environment. He claimed that only five forces needed consideration. Porter (1980) argued that the stronger the manifestation of each of the forces, the more limited the ability of established companies to raise prices and to earn greater profits. This is pure Modernist, Neo-economic thinking. The simplifying and â€Å"blinding† role of externalities in economics, blinds Porter (1980) who is unable to postulate the role of government, or de-regulation, in his five factor, positioning model at the very time he was proselytizing the case of the US Airline industry under severe conditions of Reaganite, ideological deregulation of that industry (Kouzmin, 2007). Porter (1997) preaches that many of these intangible forces are measurable and that, in addition, there is a â€Å"chain of causality that runs from competitive environment to position to activities to employee skills and organization†. This causal argument is further pursued with Porter’s (1985) concepts of the value chain (see Figure 3). The value chain analysis is based on the simple linear idea that every activity performed in an organization will add some value to the final products or services produced. The final product is simply the aggregate of values contributed. The 3Cs model of Kenichi Ohmae Ohmae (1982) has much to discuss about competitive position, particularly the competitive positioning of successful Japanese companies. It is his view that the theories abounding in economic and economic policy circles concerning the importance of position have not been the drivers of Japanese success. He believes that strategy is not about beating the competition but about satisfying customer needs. Still further, Deming (1986) expounds a fundamental concept when exhorting his audience to consider the concept of competition. It is his argument that people must learn to cooperate with others and to compete with themselves. In the context of strategy, the ideas of Ohmae and Deming, regarding the importance of customers is most important. Concepts of competition and market share are of little use to the business principal and as a consequence there is very little that the philosophies of the Positioning School can add to their strategy knowledge base. As with Ohmae’s Japanese corporations, competitive advantage is driven by the ability to serve the needs of customers better. The 3Cs Model is a strategic look at the factors needed for success. The 3C’s model points out that a strategist should focus on three key factors for success. In the construction of a business strategy, three main players must be taken into account: 1. The Corporation 2. The Customer 3. The Competitors Only by integrating these three C’s (Corporation, Customer, Competitors) in a strategic triangle, a sustained competitive advantage can exist. Ohmae refers to these key factors as the three C’s or strategic triangle. Hito-Kane-Mono A favorite phrase of Japanese business planners is hito-kane-mono, standing for people, money and things. They believe that streamlined corporate management is achieved when these three critical resources are in balance without surplus or waste. For example: Cash over and beyond what competent people can intelligently expend is wasted. Of the three critical resources, funds should be allocated last. The corporation should firstly allocate management talent, based on the available mono (things): plant, machinery, technology, process know-how and functional strength. Once these hito (people) have developed creative and imaginative ideas to capture the business’s upward potential, the kane (money) should be given to the specific ideas and programs generated by the individual managers. The Ansoff Growth Matrix Strategy Tool Igor Ansoff (1965) was the originator of the strategic management concept, and was responsible for establishing strategic planning as a management activity in its own right. His landmark book, Corporate Strategy (1965), was the first text to concentrate entirely on strategy, and although the ideas outlined are complex, it remains one of the classics of management literature. Ansoff was one of the earliest writers on strategy as a management discipline, and laid strong foundations for several later writers to build upon, including Michael Porter, Gary Hamel and C K Prahalad. He invented the modern approach to strategy and his work pulled together various ideas and disparate strands of thought, giving a new coherence and discipline to the concept he described as strategic planning. During the 1970s and 1980s, this concept shaped more ideas about management as other writers took up Ansoffs ideas, such as core competence or sticking to the knitting. A debate between Ansoff and Henry Mintzberg over their differing views of strategy was reflected in print over many years, particularly in the Harvard Business Review. Ansoff has often been criticized by Mintzberg, who disliked the idea of strategy being built from planning which is supported by analytical techniques. This criticism was based on the belief that Ansoffs reliance on planning suffered from three fallacies: that events can be predicted, that strategic thinking can be separated from operational management, and that hard data, analysis and techniques can produce novel strategies. Ansoff argued that within a companys activities there should be an element of core capability, an idea later adopted and expanded by Hamel and Prahalad. To establish a link between past and future corporate activities (the first time such an approach was undertaken) The Ansoff Growth matrix is a tool that helps businesses decide their product and market growth strategy. This Ansoff Matrix considers the existing and new markets as well as the existing and new products and services as a potential for business growth and development. Ansoff identified four key strategy components that interact with each other causing various effects on both new and existing products and markets. Figure four below is followed with a brief description of each component of the matrix. The Ansoff Growth Matrix Grid Source: (Proctor, 1997, p. 146). Market penetration Market penetration is the name given to a growth strategy where the business focuses on selling existing products into existing markets. Market penetration seeks to achieve four main objectives: †¢ Maintain or increase the market share of current products – this can be achieved by a combination of competitive pricing strategies, advertising, sales promotion and perhaps more resources dedicated to personal selling †¢ Secure dominance of growth markets Restructure a mature market by driving out competitors; this would require a much more aggressive promotional campaign, supported by a pricing strategy designed to make the market unattractive for competitors †¢ Increase usage by existing customers – for example by introducing loyalty schemes a market penetration marketing strategy is very much about â€Å"business as usual†. The business is focusing on markets and produc ts it knows well. It is likely to have good information on competitors and on customer needs. It is unlikely, therefore, that this strategy will require much investment in new market research. Market development Market development is the name given to a growth strategy where the business seeks to sell its existing products into new markets. There are many possible ways of approaching this strategy, including: †¢ New geographical markets; for example exporting the product to a new country †¢ New product dimensions or packaging: for example †¢ New distribution channels †¢ Different pricing policies to attract different customers or create new market segments Product development Product development is the name given to a growth strategy where a business aims to introduce new products into existing markets. This strategy may require the development of new competencies and requires the business to develop modified products which can appeal to existing markets. Diversification Diversification is the name given to the growth strategy where a business markets new products in new markets. This is an inherently more risk strategy because the business is moving into markets in which it has little or no experience. For a business to adopt a diversification strategy, therefore, it must have a clear idea about what it expects to gain from the strategy and an honest assessment of the risks. Future Direction of Strategic Planning Strategic planning has come a long since its humble earlier works that were defined in the early 1960s. Many of these earlier concepts are still valid today or are reflected in the basic assumptions being used by leaders in our ever diverse organizations. Today, the goal of the organization is to achieve a competitive advantage by positioning itself in such a way that it has the ability to succeed all competition by enhancing performance. Competitive advantage is a concept that business organizations will continue to strive for. Michael Porter has been credited with introducing the five forces concept into business strategies. His theory has served as a back board for IO Theory (industrial Organization) theory. The traditional Bain/Mason paradigm of industrial organization offered strategic management a systematic model for assessing competition within an industry and was never really inducted into business policy by top decision makers. Many economists today have learned that introducing business policies into strategic planning and managing the economic impact of this union offers a positive influence on how organizations match up against each other on a microeconomic scale (Porter, 1981). From an IO economic perspective, mobility barriers or market positions are critical sources of competitive advantages that lead to superior performance. Organizational economics is more concerned with devising appropriate governance mechanisms or contracts to help reduce transaction or agency costs. The RBV (Resource Based View) of the firm has refocused the field of strategic management on all internal characteristics and views firms these characteristics as the source of competitive advantage. These characteristics have been identified as operational efficiencies, mergers, acquisitions, level of diversification, types of diversification, organizational structures, team management style, human resources management, and the manipulation of the political and social influences intruding upon the market that impacts organizations (Teece, 1982). The resource based view of the firm will be continue to be of significant importance to any organization because it provides leaders with specific tools needed to sustain a competitive position in a market place by providing management needed insights into examining the resource attributes and the their relationships towards other related variables in the market place as a means to gain the edge in the dynamic market (Barney, 2001). Conclusion Strategic planning has developed into a vital practice that must be approached with careful consideration to allow for through investigation into how an organization is structured. From both an internal and external perspective, managers need to recognize the need to evaluate value, mission, core competencies, history, and past, current, and future situations in order to gain and sustain competitive advantage in a market place. The need to identify strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats, has been addressed as a main basic goal that must be used by leaders to empower the organization. Various models and theorists have been identified and explained as a means to gain a better understanding on how to define strategic planning. Since the 1960s, there have been many different points of view concerning the strategic planning concept. Various schools of thought have been developed by infamous theorists who have engraved a foot print into the development of modern corporate practices. Many of these concepts have paved the way for common approaches utilized by corporations as building blocks for surviving in such dynamic and competitive environments. Many of the strategies that are in use today are variations from the past and will continue to be adopted and manipulated to fit the needs of leaders seeking to find solutions to new and emerging issues that are relevant and applicable to the real business needs of organizations. Leaders today will need to continue finding new ways to plan for the future and adjust to the pace of environmental change with confidence, knowledge, skill, and ability. References Ansoff, H. I. (1965). An Analytic Approach to Business Policy for Growth and Expansion. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. Barney, J. B. 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